Introduction
Scientific subjects are, by their nature, experimental. It is accordingly important that an assessment of a student’s knowledge and understanding of Chemistry should contain a component relating to practical work and experimental skills. This booklet has been produced to help students preparing for and taking practical Examinations. The material contained in this booklet does not extend the curriculum specification content. Rather it seeks to help the candidate succeed in practical examination by explaining in more depth what is required of him or her in carrying out the exercises, making observations and measurements with appropriate precision and recording these methodically. This booklet advices candidate on how he or she should interpret, explain, evaluate and communicate the results of the exercises clearly and logically using relevant chemical knowledge and understanding and using appropriate specialist vocabulary.
1.1APPARATUS IN A CHEMISTRY LABORATORY
1.2 SPECIAL LABORATORY APPARATUS AND TECHNIQUES
(a) USING THE BURETTE
A burette is used to deliver solution in precisely measured, variable volumes. Burettes are used primarily for titration, to deliver one reactant until the precise end point of the reaction is reached. To fill a burette, close the stopcock at the bottom and use a funnel. You may need to lift up on the funnel slightly, to allow the solution to flow in freely.
You can also fill a burette using a disposable transfer pipette. This works better than a funnel for the small, 10 mL burettes. Be sure the transfer pipette is dry or conditioned with the titrant, so the concentration of solution will not be changed.
Before titrating, condition the burette with titrant solution and check that the burette is flowing freely. To condition a piece of glassware, rinse it so that all surfaces are coated with solution, then drain. Conditioning two or three times will insure that a stray drop of water does not change the concentration of titrant.
Rinse the tip of the burette with water from a wash bottle and dry it carefully. After a minute, check for solution on the tip to see if your burette is leaking. The tip should be clean and dry before you take an initial volume reading.
When your burette is conditioned and filled, with no air bubbles or leaks, take an initial volume reading. A burette-reading card with a black rectangle can help you to take a more accurate reading. Read the bottom of the meniscus. Be sure your eye is at the level of meniscus, not above or below. Reading from an angle, rather than straight on, results in a parallax error.
Deliver solution to the titration flask by turning the stopcock. The solution should be delivered quickly until a couple of mL from the endpoint. The endpoint should be approached slowly, a drop at a time. Use a wash bottle to rinse the tip of the burette and the sides of the flask. Your TA can show you how to deliver a partial drop of solution, when near the endpoint.
(b) Volumetric (measuring) Flasks
Erlenmeyer flasks and beakers are used for mixing, transporting, and reacting, but not for accurate measurements. The volumes stamped on the sides are approximate and accurate to within about 5%.
(c) Graduated Cylinders
Graduated cylinders are useful for measuring liquid volumes to within about 1%. They are for general-purpose use, but not for quantitative analysis.
If greater accuracy is needed, use a pipette or volumetric flask.
(d) Pipette
A pipette is used to measure small amounts of solution very accurately. A pipette bulb is used to draw solution into the pipette.
Start by squeezing the bulb in your preferred hand. Then place the bulb on the flat end of the pipette.
Place the tip of the pipette in the solution and release your grip on the bulb to pull solution into the pipette. Draw solution in above the mark on the neck of the pipette. If the volume of the pipette is larger than the volume of the pipette bulb, you may need to remove the bulb from the pipette and squeeze it and replace it on the pipette a second time, to fill the pipette volume completely.
Quickly, remove the pipette bulb and put your index finger on the end of the pipette. Gently release the seal made by your finger until the level of the solution meniscus exactly lines up with the mark on the pipette. Practice this with water until you are able to use the pipette and bulb consistently and accurately.
(e) Volumetric Flask
A volumetric flask is used to make up a solution of fixed volume very accurately. This volumetric flask measures 500 mL ± 0.2 mL. This is a relative uncertainty of 4 x 10-4 or 400 parts per million.
To make up a solution, first dissolve the solid material completely, in less water than required to fill the flask to the mark.
After the solid is completely dissolved, very carefully fill the flask to the 500 mL mark. Move your eye to the level of the mark on the neck of the flask and line it up so that the circle around the neck looks like a line, not an ellipse. Then add distilled water a drop at a time until the bottom of the meniscus lines up exactly with the mark on the neck of the flask. Take care that no drops of liquid are in the neck of the flask above the mark.
After the final dilution, remember to mix your solution thoroughly, by inverting the flask and shaking.
(f) Analytical Balance
An analytical balance measures masses to within 0.0001 g. Use these balances when you need this high degree of precision.
Turn the balance on by pressing the control bar. The display lights up for several seconds, then resets to 0.0000.
Place creased, small weighing paper on the balance pan.
Close the sliding glass doors. Wait for the green dot on the left to go out. This is the stability indicator light, indicating that the weight is stable.
Press the control bar to cancel out the weight of the container or paper. The display will again read 0.0000. Carefully add the substance to be weighed up to the desired mass. Do not attempt to reach a particular mass exactly. Before recording the mass, close the glass doors and wait until the stability detector lamp goes out. Record mass of solid.
Don't pick up tare containers with bare hands since your fingerprints add mass. Use tongs to prevent this.
Don't lean on the bench while weighing.
Do record the mass of your container, if you will need it later.
Do check the level indicator bubble before weighing. The two rear balance feet serve as levelling screws. Use the brush provided to clean spills in the weighing chamber. Discard any disposable tare containers or weighing paper, in the nearest wastebasket.
(g) Calorimetry
Calorimetry is used to determine the heat released or absorbed in a chemical reaction. The calorimeters shown here can determine the heat of a solution reaction at constant (atmospheric) pressure. The calorimeter is a double Styrofoam cup fitted with a plastic top in which there is a hole for a thermometer.
