AGE 401: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
E-NOTES LECTURE 2
By
Dr Matheaus K. Kauti, PhD {mkauti@seku.ac.ke}-{0722606398}
2.1 Introduction
This lecture discusses the subdivisions of conservation, branches of natural environment conservation, success stories in the field of environmental conservation,
2.2 Lecture objectives
By the end of this course the learner should be able to:
Explain the subdivisions of conservation.
Outline the branches of natural environment conservation.
Discuss the success stories in conservation.
2.3 Subdivisions of Conservation
Architectural Conservation
Buildings and complexes, and urban development are an essential part of the historic built environment, an expansion from traditional archaeology which used to focus on derelict buildings and monuments of historic importance. Many buildings of historical significance are still in use today in both the Old World and the New World and there are multiple examples of buildings still in use preserved on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Architectural conservation is the intervention to stop the degradation of historic structures - either in use or derelict, that are subject to protections for their historical significance for future generations to enjoy. Buildings are often subject to problems because they were not designed with permanence in mind, even those built to last. The longer they are standing, the more important they become and the more likely they are to experience problems, the higher the risk factor to their survival. The aim is to prolong a building's life for as long as possible and maintain the integrity of the building's fabric.
Conservation Biology
Arguably the area that most people consider when they hear the word “conservation”. This is the science of protecting biodiversity and managing an ecosystem to ensure its integrity. It aims to protect individual species (especially where they are threatened or endangered or at risk from invasive species), the habitats in which they reside and maintaining the status quo of an environment. It focuses on all biological life within a biome and seeks to promote normal interactions. It's a relatively young area, arriving in the late 1970s when it was becoming clear that industrial actions were affecting microclimates and delicate habitats and damaging biodiversity.
Conservation Ethics
This is more of a philosophy that underpins many of conservation's theories and practices. Simply, it is an explanation of standards of ethics in the protection of species, natural resources, land, cultural assets, and in their use and management. Although most sciences have ethics and code of conduct to do as little harm as possible and ensure maximum benefit may be extracted from such actions, few are so intertwined with an ethical approach so deeply ingrained. It acts as a counterbalance to the culture of “indifference” that many feel exist towards resource use under modern economic systems since the Industrial Revolution.
Conservation Genetics
Conservation is often as much a biological issue as anything else. While conservation biology is about maintaining the integrity of an ecosystem, conservation genetics concerns the genetic diversity of a certain species. It is integral to breeding programs that zoos and conservation parks now actively engage in as part of their efforts to avoid species extinction. It uses all the tools, techniques, and knowledge of genetics to select breeding pairs and to ensure genetic diversity amongst threatened and endangered species. Often, it is the most important and sometimes the only way to ensure genetic biodiversity.
Conservation Economics
Economics is a vital link in any political system as there is a need to provide employment and funding for public services and investment and to ensure markets function. Conservation Economics applies economic models to understand the relative costs and financial benefits of everything related to conservation - laws, protections, limits on resource acquisition and so on. It also looks at the economic benefits of setting aside conservation lands such as tourism and the health benefits. With such models, progress and conservation are not in opposition or a battle of wits, but complementary with both seeing the other as vital in their systems.
Branches of natural environment conservation
Soil Conservation
With broad applications in agriculture, disaster prevention and for ecology, soil conservation concerns maintaining or restoring the integrity of ground soil. Experts in this field with examine ways of engaging in soil management to prevent erosion or depletion of nutrients and work to remove contamination during toxic spillages. It is as much about ecological health as public health, and often as part of an insurance claim when there is lost income (for example, industrial spillage on or near agricultural land that could damage a farmer's income or lead to crop contamination). Intensive agriculture is a fact of modern life; while this concerns pollution, the biggest contributor to soil nutrient depletion is overuse. Other issues concern removal of tree cover in tropical zones that without adequate infrastructure will lead to flooding and nutrient loss.
Water Conservation
Water security is a growing problem with a growing population and with both flooding and drought now common in some parts of the world, there are few areas of conservation considered more important than this. Simply, it is the management of fresh water supply. This is a sustainable resource but is often overused. Droughts in California and flooding in the southern states, in particular, mean active measures are required to reduce overuse of water resources, eliminate wastage from supplies to homes, commercial and industrial properties, and to take steps to avoid drinking water from being contaminated with so-called “grey water”. Water security is also important to crop growth and maintaining food security as fodder for cattle and our own food supply.
Wetland Conservation
Wetlands such as swamps, tidal marshes and river floodplains are an important and broad source of biodiversity and home to rare, endangered, and threatened species. Many overwintering species use the wetlands of the world temporarily or as permanent homes. As they provide sanctuary to threatened and endangered animals and plants, they are protected in most areas of the world. In many cases, protecting their numbers and supporting their continued existence is solely dependent on protecting the environments that they inhabit. Wetland conservation is not just about maintaining what is already there, but also restoration. Draining in the recent past has had a massive impact on the local flora and fauna and steps are being taken to restore them.
Wildlife Conservation
Whereas conservation biology is about preserving ecosystems for species by looking at their biological functions through anatomy and genetics, wildlife conservation is less concerned with the science of biology and more with protections based on habitats, numbers, diversity, and fragility to changes in the environment. It's an application of conservation rather than a study. The aim is to ensure that everything possible is done to ensure the integrity of populations and their ecosystems for continued survival. It involves charities and governments, often working together to change laws and enact measures to achieve goals.
Marine Conservation
Oceans and seas cover around 2/3 of our planet. They are vital for life and home to thousands of species. It's a natural resource and an economic one; many problems blight our oceans today, not least of all overfishing and the dumping of waste. Marine conservation looks at ways of preserving the oceans as ecosystems for the species that rely on them and focuses on laws for protection and management of such ecosystems. It interlinks with many other areas, particularly oceanography and marine biology.
1.5 Conservation Success stories so far
Conservation engages governments, local people, interest groups, and charities working together to ensure that a certain resource or elements of the natural landscape or cultural heritage is preserved for future generations. There are many such examples of success stories around the world, some of which are listed here.
Southern White Rhino
2018 saw the technical (if not the literal) extinction of the Northern White Rhino when the last male died in an African reserve. Political instability and a lack of unified program of care led to the demise of this subspecies, the story of its cousin to the south is a much different affair. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Southern White Rhino numbered just 20 individuals, all located in a reserve in South Africa. But international conservation efforts, effective laws and management, funding and a coherent breeding program changed all that. At the last census in 2015, it was estimated that species numbers were anything between 19,500 and 21,000. As recently as the 1960s, there were just 840 individuals. It is now the most prevalent of all rhinoceros species.
Giant Panda
The Giant Panda is the symbol of the World Wildlife Foundation. Since the 1980s it has been the most prominent species globally in terms of the conservation movement. Despite still being in a delicate situation, the Giant Panda recently moved from the “endangered” to the “vulnerable” list. Due to mass deforestation in the industrial era, they were driven out of the lowland habitats and into the highlands of China. But a scheme of breeding, conservation and protection, forest restoration means their numbers are once again growing. It was estimated in the 1970s that the total number of Giant Pandas living in the wild was around 1,110. In 2016, similar figures suggested anything between 2,000 and 3,000 although the official figure was 1,800.
American Bison
The argument over who was responsible for the decline of the North American Bison will go on for some time. Colonial powers are largely given the blame, but some have pointed to changing hunting habits of Native Americans. Either way, everyone has agreed that the decline of this once-prevalent species is of major concern. Today, most
American Bison live on farms and ranches and are bred for meat. Wild herds are far less common and numerous attempts have been made to restore them to the great plains of the US and areas of Canada where they once roamed. Nevertheless, their numbers are increasing, both in captivity and in the wild. Their status today is “Near Threatened”. We know that 500 years ago when the first European colonies were formed in North America, there were millions of bison. In 2008, there were 400,000 with over 90% of them in captive herds with a gradual increase in wild herds of both plains and woodland bison.
Bat Conservation
These fascinating mammals are subject to some of the most stringent laws on conservation and wildlife protection in every country where they exist. In the western countries, disturbing bats or their habitats are often subject to severe penalties. Despite that legends inform us that they are carnivorous, most bats are herbivorous, living mostly on fruit, while some are insectivorous or omnivorous. Although not unique, they have a rare place in mammals in that they are responsible for a large portion of pollination; they also control insect pests. Simply, they are vital for agriculture and ecology. The majority of bat species today are endangered or vulnerable. Although this means laws are necessary to protect them and we must remain on guard, it is an improvement over the last few decades when numbers declined. Arguably, the largest success story is the Rodrigues Fruit Bat, reduced to just 100 individuals on the island after which it is named in the 1970s, today there are over 25,000.
Bald Eagle
In the US, there is no greater example of the success of national efforts than the bird that has become the nation's symbol. The Bald Eagle has captured the imagination of conservationists the world over, mostly because it is only one of a few species that have ever come off the endangered species list. Its story is even more inspiring because it was once on the brink of extinction due to a combination of massive forestry clearance, a considerable reduction in its prey species due to overhunting, and farmers shooting them due to the perception of threat to livestock. Also, we know that the use of DDT also killed a great many more . The banning of DDT, the Clean Water Act, banning of shooting eagles, protected nest sites and targeted restoration programs means this majestic bird of prey has gone from just 500 at the low point to 70,000 today.
Buffalo Clover
Invasive species are as problematic for plants as they are for animals. Yet non-native and destructive plants can often be far more problematic than invasive animals. US foresters and other conservation landowners have traditionally had a hard time protecting and propagating a native plant called Buffalo Clover. There are four types of plant by this name, but the conservation success story is a true clover, sometimes known as Running Buffalo Clover - it's scientific name is Trifolium stoloniferum. It's native to the Eastern and Mid-Western states and currently on the endangered list. It was believed extinct until several colonies were discovered in 1985 in Virginia. Since then, it's been subject to some of the most stringent plant conservation laws in the country, more colonies have been found, it's been replanted in areas where it once thrived. It remains critical but efforts to conserve it are pushing Buffalo Clover towards a stable return to the east.
Douglas Hawthorn
Native to the US states and Canadian provinces around the Great Lakes, few plants have received as much special attention as the Douglas Hawthorn. It resides along the borders of woodlands, in forest clearings and other areas where tree cover is not too dense. It has come under attack from a number of threats, specifically from insects adapted to non-woodland environments moving into farmland and clearings and trampling through excess tourist visitation. It has special concern status in Michigan and much effort has been devoted to cultivating seeds and reintroducing it on both sides of the border in areas where it has been under the greatest threat. It's been successful, but it remains in a delicate state in some areas while experiencing critical success in others.
